The Hustle and Bustle of Health: Urban vs. Rural

Cities all over our world keep growing and improvising upon the very foundations allowing their existence. Economies boom, cultures blossom, and life quality – fluctuating throughout neighbourhoods – drastically increases when the city becomes “home.” Indubitably, the city life appeals to many individuals seeking an alternative to the slow-paced, laid-back monotonous style of living implemented by rural communities. Cities foster diversity, efficiency, and all the productivity the “country” sometimes all together lacks. However, as much as cities provide prosperity toward a society, these mixing pots of civilization also give way to stress and possible mental disease. In this article we will investigate the health concerns cities all over the world place upon its residents while also outweighing this to the numerous progressive measures taken by local governments.

Age old debate - City vs. Country

The debate over country and city rages on today just as it did during the formation of this nation. Half the nation leans toward a sedentary life while the other half roots itself in concrete jungles rumoured to foster innumerable health concerns. The country leaves urban dwellers with images of clean air, fresh food, and physical activities. However, society is seeing a flip in this as major cities live longer and remain overall healthier than their rural counterparts. As Melinda Beck from the Wall Street Journal observes, people in the country smoke more, drink more, and eat unhealthily more. Kids growing up in rural areas eat about 80 grams of fat a day, 7 grams more compared to that of urban children, exposing them to heart risks as well as diabetes. Alternatively, these children also tend to have less asthma – as air pollution runs rampant in cities – and develop much fewer allergies. The health systems in cities may take the upper hand thanks to income and education levels: emergency medical response time in the country averages at 18 minutes compared to the 10 minutes in cities. Also, only 10% of the country’s physicians work with rural communities while 25% of the U.S. population resides within these communities. Income and education also do play a role on each other as education maintains a stronger hold over urban areas. The median household income in cities is $53,000; in rural areas it is $39,000; in suburbs it is $60,000. Fairly matched, suburbs draw the best of both worlds in certainly every way possible, however, not as much research is done upon them as the polar opposite ways of life draw more attention and need of development. 

In many measures, urban citizens experience a higher rate of mental health problems than rural residents – 39% more mood disorders and 21% more anxiety disorders. This is why such affluent and advanced health institutions have been spun all throughout cities. Not only this, but as observed before, response times are much quicker and service is much more efficient in urban centres. In essence, cities provide more developed versions of public services compared to those seen in rural areas. Studies, condensed by Bryan Walsh from TIME, exemplify how modern cities are some of the safest places to live. The risk of death, both violent crime and accidents, is more than 20% higher in the country than it is in urban areas. Though gun violence is much more exposed in cities throughout the young adult population, children and grown adults experience the deadly effects of firearms much more in the countryside. This is possibly due to the unfortunate truth where residents in rural areas own more firearms and irresponsibly leave them in reach of children. 

Guns, however, are not the leading cause of death. Vehicle related deaths occur at a rate of more than 1.4 times the next leading causes of death. It’s easy to see why vehicular cashes take 27.61 deaths per 100,000 people in rural areas while just 10.58 deaths per 100,000 people in urban: people in the country drive longer, faster, and, in correlation with previous statistics, drunker. City dwellers drive slower or simply take public transportation or – crazy – walk! It proves very good to note the cardiovascular benefits that urban residents gain by walking more and driving less, notes TIME. “It’s not for nothing that New Yorkers, who live in the densest urban area in the U.S., live about 2.2 years longer than the national averages.”

Arguably, the countryside pretty much voids itself from the stress and anxiety stemming from city life. Though many of the educated and affluent stay in the city, some venture off to the country or suburbs to be more in touch with nature. One of these individuals is Mitchell Langbert, a man with a family who used to live in New York City but left to the countryside of New York state about ten years ago. Although he and his family are perfectly well-off where they are now, they have observed over the years how big government progressivism “has hammered people with roots in the region.” He restates articles by scholarly journals that life expectancy is slightly longer in the city than the country while suburbs are overall still better for your health; he comes to find that the progressivism in these rural areas is what’s affecting all aspects of life. The stress of the city is trickling down to those of the country. 

Stress inducing social isolation

Many do question and wonder how the notorious stress of city life develops, thus researchers such as Allison Abbott of Nature come about to dispel the cloudiness surrounding what is now known as “urban decay.” This urban decay is the outcome of placing individuals into situations where stress, anxiety, and isolation become the normal day-to-day of working and living within a major city. Now that over half of the world’s population lives in cities, scientists are finding that citizens that fall to this trend suffer from schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, or any other psychiatric condition. These mental conditions spring out of the very foundations that make a city what it is – the city environment. A city’s environment can give off a sense of familiarity and well-being or that of an unhealthy, noisy, busy, and simply unsettling atmosphere that fosters the growth of stress and anxiety. Of course, city officials are working on finding means to decrease the negative aspects of a city’s environment, but, as of now, those who fall to the spew of mental diseases due to these factors are placed under psychiatric ailments to aid in the recovery process. 

As discussed in length, urban centres are fortunate to have such advanced forms of healthcare institutions as it has been evidenced by the American Psychological Association that these mental disorders are left untreated in the nation’s rural areas, causing suicide rates to surge well over that of their urban counterparts. Nature’s article does focus on the effects of social isolation within cities, where you could feel surrounded by millions of people yet feel so alone, but not much was looked into as far as social isolation goes in the country, where you could physically and emotionally be separated altogether from society. One thing is for certain: the unhealthy stress harnessed by city residents is the healthy stress needed by rural communities.

World famous NYC's Central Park

The connection to nature the countryside boasts is indeed a necessity for all humans. Ben Welle of The City Fix states how city trees help keep cities’ air and water clean, impact residents’ physical and emotional health, and reasserts the value of trees for our global environment. Certainly, concrete jungles of building upon building interlaced with smog, pollutants, and worn down establishments do not sit well with communities battling to keep stress in the city at bay. Even with current efforts to optimise citizen’s health, smarter city technology of the future gives hopes of improving quality of life amidst rising stress levels. Utilising systems to improve an individual’s self-actualization, esteem, love and belonging, safety, and physiological needs, The Urban Technologist believes improving a city’s quality of life involves making everyone feel involved and accepted by the community. Stress will be present, no doubt, but by implementing means of adapting to the busy lifestyle of cities through encouraging individual consciousness, not only will an individual be relieved of the health burdens placed on them, but so will an entire metropolis thriving off the contributions made by every one of its citizens.

Works Cited

Abbott, Alison. "Stress and the City: Urban Decay." NATURE (2012): N. pag. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.nature.com/news/stress-and-the-city-urban-decay-1.11556>.

Beck, Melinda. "City Vs. Country: Who Is Healthier?" The Wall Street Journal. N.p., 12 July 2011. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304793504576434442652581806>.

Clay, Rebecca A. "Reducing Rural Suicide." American Psychological Association. American Psychological Association, Apr. 2014. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. <http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/04/rural-suicide.aspx>.

Langbert, Mitchell. "Country Versus City: the Wall Street Journal Is Confused." Mitchell Langbert's Blog. Blogger, 14 July 2011. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. <http://mitchell-langbert.blogspot.com/2011/07/country-versus-city-wall-street-journal.html>.

Robinson, Rick. "Can Smarter City Technology Measure and Improve Our Quality of Life?" The Urban Technologist. The Urban Technologist, 24 Sept. 2013. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. <http://theurbantechnologist.com/2013/09/24/can-smarter-cities-improve-our-quality-of-life/>.

Walsh, Bryan. "In Town Vs. Country, It Turns Out That Cities Are the Safest Places to Live." Ecocentric. TIME, 23 July 2013. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. <http://science.time.com/2013/07/23/in-town-versus-country-it-turns-out-that-cities-are-the-safest-places-to-live/>.

Welle, Ben. "Urban Trees Boost Quality of Life for City Dwellers Around the World." The City Fix. EMBARQ, 7 May 2014. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. <http://thecityfix.com/blog/urban-trees-boost-quality-life-city-dwellers-around-world-livability-tree-canopy-ben-welle/>.

GMOs: Don't Bite the Hand that Feeds

After rigorous testing, it is clear that Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are safe for human and animal consumption. But should we use them? What are the risks of their use? What can we benefit from their use? Many argue that GMOs are too dangerous to use. Skeptics of GMOs claim that they will become invasive and overtake natural plant varieties and destroy biodiversity by breaking down complex food webs. However, GMOs can serve to protect the environment, produce high yields for a growing population, and sustain/develop economies through expanding and establishing new agricultural industries.

The main argument against GMO use is that GMOs will spread and crowd out natural varieties of plants. One way that this is hypothesised is that the seeds of GMO plants will be unintentionally dispersed. These super seeds will be better adapted to fight off predators and will crowd out the indigenous plants. Their crowding will eliminate a tear of the local food chain and cause an ecological collapse in biodiversity. The second idea of ecological contamination is that pollen from the GMO plants will settle on their natural counterparts. This will transform the DNA of the seed and result in the plants offspring to be a hybrid. The presence of this hybrid could follow the path of the earlier scenario and also cause an ecological breakdown. These ideas can be seen by reports such as the Proposals for managing the coexistence of GM, conventional and organic crops by the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health.

 

The use of GMO plants can have a profound effect on the state of the environment that we live in. One such example is the planting of a genetically modified strain of cotton, Bt cotton. In China, this GM variety of cotton has greatly reduced the amount of applied pesticides, “increasing the abundance of beneficial organisms on farms, and decrease[ing] populations of crop-damaging insects” (“The Truth”). Out in Arizona, farms growing this Bt variety are recorded as having a greater level of biodiversity present on the farms. Also, Arizona farmers growing Bt cotton are applying half the pesticides of the conventional cotton growing neighbors (“The Truth”).

A Partially Drowned Rice Field in India

As of 8:13 PM on February 5, 2015, there were 7,293,014,628 people in the world. (Population Clock). GMOs may be the saving grace for a world that’s population is growing far beyond sustainability by traditional agriculture practices. As our population increases, we must look for new ways to feed our world. Therefore, we must do all we can to stop crop loss. In Tomorrow’s Table, Pamela Ronald illustrates the violence caused by just the loss of rice plants in Asia alone. According to Ronald, flash floods in South and Southeast Asia annihilate 15 million hectares of rice annually. To give you an idea of how much rice is lost, a hectare is 2.47 acres. She also points out that in a land inhabited by 140 million people, these floods wash away $1 billion in rice crops annually. In Bangladesh and India, floods destroy 4 million tons of rice annually. That amount of rice could have fed 30 million people. By tacking the flood resistant gene from the FR13A rice plant to the swarna rice plant, the modified swarna plant can now withstand up to 14 days under submergence and still produce the high yields of the original swarna plant (Ronald, 2009, p.6). This new genetically engineered plant can replace the billions of dollars lost in crop damage due to floods and feed millions of previously starving people around the world.

Another example of the possibilities of GMOs can be illustrated in the meat production industry. “In 2030, the world will likely consume 70 percent more meat than it did in 2000” (“GMOs”). As our consumption of meat continues to grow exponentially, we must concern ourselves with how do we produce higher meat yields? One emerging possibility is the idea of “in-vitro meats” or lab-grown meats (“GMOs”). This innovation will drastically cut back on our reliance on industrious livestock farming. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, this independence from animals would eliminate about “20 percent of the earth’s greenhouse gas emission” (“GMOs”).

A Banana with mild Banana Xanthomonas Wilt disease

Aside from feeding the world, GMOs can also strengthen or rebuild an economy. Nowhere is this more important than in developing countries. One case study is the banana industry in Uganda and East Africa. One-third of the world’s bananas are grown in sub-Saharan Africa. Within that region, those bananas account for more than 25 percent of the energy used by 100 million people. The Banana industry in Uganda and East Africa has all but been destroyed due to an infective bacteria that causes Banana Xanthomonas Wilt disease. Essentially the bacteria causes the banana to rot from the inside out. This infection turns the inside of the banana into a thick black ooze. “More than a thousand kinds of banana can be found worldwide, but none has robust resistance to BXW. Even if resistance were identified… breeding a new variety using conventional methods would take decades, assuming it is even possible” (“The Truth”). However, if a GMO resistant banana were grown, the banana industry would thrive once again. Professor Calestous Juma, a Harvard scholar who wrote “the most authoritative scholarly work [The New Harvest] on agriculture in Africa” (Kagolo), is of the opinion that the acceptance of GMOs “would only boost food and income security” (Kagolo). By engineering a resistant variety of banana tree, the tree can ward off the bacteria which would revitalize and secure the banana industry that is such a crucial sector in East Africa.
 


Papaya With Ringspot Virus

The papaya industry in Hawaii and China is exists today only due to the innovations of genetic modification. In 1970, the ringspot virus was found in papayas in Hilo, Hawaii. This virus would eventually spread to all the papaya in Hawaii, essentially wiping out the industry. To combat the disease, Cornell University pathologist, Dennis Gonsalves, engineered the virus-resistant rainbow papaya plant. It is because of the virus-resistant rainbow papaya that the industry even exists today. In 2010, 30.1 million pounds of papayas were harvested in Hawaii (Callis). Today, 99 percent of Chinese and 70 percent of Hawaiian papaya farmers grow this variety (“The Truth”). In 2012, total papaya exports in US dollars accumulated to $8,637,162 (Callis).

Genetically Modified Organisms are the future of the agriculture sector. Their implications are vital to helping preserve our environment, feed an ever increasing population, and to provide economic stability and growth to the various agricultural industries. GMOs should be fully embraced in public’s opinion as it is in the scientific community. It is vital to continue GMO research and practices. Without GMOs working for us, we are doomed to a toxic, hungry, and an economically unstable future.

Works Cited

"An Absurd Law." Nature. N.p., 24 Feb. 2010. Web. 29 Jan. 2015.

Callis, Tom. "Papaya: A GMO Success Story." Hawaii Tribune-Herald. N.p., 10 June 2013. Web. 04 Feb. 2015. <http://hawaiitribune-herald.com/sections/news/local-news/papaya-gmo-success-story.html>.

"GMOs: Yes or No?" Running and Fitnews May-June 2011: 2-4. ProQuest Central. Web. 01 Feb. 2015.

Kagolo, Francis. "Africa: GMOs Good for Africa's Development, Says Harvard Don." AllAfrica.com. All Africa, 22 Apr. 2013. Web. 02 Feb. 2015. <http://allafrica.com/stories/201304221642.html>.

Proposals for Managing the Coexistence of GM, Conventional and Organic Crops. N.p.: Chartered Institute of Environmental Health, Oct. 2006. PDF.

Ronald, Pamela. "The Truth About GMOs." www.bostonreview.net. Boston Review, 06 Sept. 2013. Web. 01 Feb. 2015.

Ronald, P. C., & Adamchak, R. W. (2008). Tomorrow’s Table. New York: Oxford University Press.

Pet Cloning

For the last twenty years, animal cloning has been an exciting and relevant topic. From Dolly the sheep in 1996 to Snuppy the dog in 2005, cloning has advanced quickly in the scientific world. As of the last few years though, cloning has reached out to service the general public in the most irresistible way: pet cloning. For many of us, the idea sounds appealing. People are thinking, “I could clone my dog and have a version of him around forever!” While this idea is exciting, there are many negative outcomes that have been produced by pet cloning. As well as the negative consequences, many people believe pet cloning to be ethically wrong. Pet cloning is an revolutionary idea, but it shouldn’t be done for anything other than scientific research because the negative implications it has including, dead embryos, defective clones, mistreatment of surrogate mothers, and the stress it could eventually put on shelter animals.

Pet cloning has become distinguished through the advertisements on popular websites such as New York Daily News and Elite Daily. These websites give readers few and insufficient facts about pet cloning other than where they can get it done and the price. These two websites have created hype with their stories, exciting their audiences. Along with these websites, some success stories have also gained fame on the Internet. In an article on Yahoo by Erin Brodwin, a man is said to have wrapped up his dead dogs to preserve them and then he proceeded to have them cloned in South Korea by scientist Woo Suk Hwang. After three years, the man brought home two new puppies that were almost-identical clones of their predecessors. A recent instance, as reported in the UK’s Daily Mail is of Rebecca Smith and her dog Winnie. After winning a contest, Smith brought her dog to the same scientist, Woo Suk Hwang, and had a clone of her dog, Mini-Winnie, within 6 months. While these websites and stories depict the positive developments of pet cloning, they fail to provide knowledge of the countless negative consequences.

Winnie, and Mini-Winnie, her clone.

In the 2005 article, “A dog’s life”, by Nature, pet cloning has a more accurate representation, illustrating both the positive and negative effects of the cloning process. Nature explains the positive outcomes of this research, saying we could begin research on many human problems through dog cloning and that the first cloned dog, Snuppy was born healthy and continues to grow and mature as any natural-born dog would. Nature also goes on to list the consequences that were suffered during the research process. They report that of 1,095 embryos planted in 123 surrogate mothers, only two clones were born alive, but shortly after birth one of the clones died. Nature argues that if this process were to be used in the future for pet cloning that it would not be very effective. They inform us that cloning one pet could result in over 100 failed pregnancies, which they believe wouldn’t attract even the most adamant pet owner.

The first cloned dog, Snuppy.

Another problem that arises with the cloning of pets is the high risk of birth defects and potential deaths because of them. In a 2001 article, published years before dog cloning even began, in The New York Times, scientists explain the different types of birth defects that appeared in different animals they cloned. Many of the animals shared similar problems including, “developmental delays, heart defects, lung problems and malfunctioning immune systems”. Because of these problems a large percentage of these clones ended up dying in the womb, and if they were born, they didn’t last long. In “successful” clones, ones that lived through birth and for a time afterwards, scientists saw problems arise as they aged, such a severe obesity and developmental abnormalities. This tended to be a common problem in mice. Problems in calves and cows included enlarged hearts and lungs, which eventually caused many of them to die. After scientists had recorded all the problematic clones, they found that mice had a two to three percent success rate, while cows only had a one percent success rate. Because of these statistics and the overall failure of animal cloning, most scientists deemed that it should only be done for important research.

Another alarming side effect of pet cloning has been the taxing effects and the deaths of surrogate mothers. As reported in The New York Times, animal cloning uses an egg from another animal for a clone. The egg is then emptied of its genetic material, and reprogrammed with the adult’s genes, before it’s placed into a surrogate mother to develop into an embryo. Unlike normal egg development, which takes years, cloned eggs are forced to mature in minutes, or hours at most. Because of this process, scientists believe that this is why clones are born with so many defects. While this process seems unsafe enough, let it be known that most surrogate mothers are implanted with nine to ten embryos at a time (“A dog’s life”). In comparison, normal mothers usually have fix to six puppies in their litters, all of which are usually in good health. For these surrogate mothers, it can get dangerous with extra embryos being planted in them. The stakes are raised even higher when a majority of these embryos are going to die within them at any point in growth. Other than the threats presented during this grueling process, surrogate mothers are also reported to be treated as “production units”. The Humane Society details the horrors surrogate mothers face in the labs. They tell of the non-regulated activities, small cages, and invasive surgeries these poor creatures face. These animals spend their lives being cut open and reused, with hardly any concern for their general health.

If pet cloning is to become more popular, a desolate future remains for dogs, cats and other animals in shelters. People are fascinated with the idea of pet cloning and the ability to hold onto their favorite pet for as long as possible. But with this attitude, where does this leave shelter animals? Nikki Moustaki from the Dog Channel raised this exact question. She recounted her own experience with her dog’s death, and the desire she may have felt to clone him, if the option had been available when he had died. Yet, like most pet owners today, Moustaki decided that she had to let go and adopted three new dogs from a local shelter. She goes on to explain the consequences the pet cloning business could put on the shelter if it were to become popular. Many more animals would be euthanized each year, and shelters may soon go out of business. Moustaki also points out that cloning costs thousands of dollars for dogs that may or may not turn out to be like the original. Unlike cloning, adoption costs very little, sometimes it’s even free. Moustaki urges her readers to re-think cloning and to consider adoption instead, so that shelter animals don’t face death.

Now that the distant dream of pet cloning had become a reality, many people are jumping out of their seats and willing to pay thousands of dollars to keep their favorite pets for as long as possible. While this seems like one of the best inventions of the 21st century, there are more reasons why it shouldn’t exist, rather than why it should. Animal cloning is still in an early experimental stage, putting out an average success rate of one percent. Because scientists are still experimenting with it, they have found that many clones die in the embryonic stage, or die shortly after birth. While some clones survive, almost all of them have some type of birth defect or genetic abnormality that greatly impacts their life or causes them to die early. Along with the clones, surrogate mothers face a life of brutal treatment due to unregulated laws and labs. Within this chain of misery, even normal pets are affected. If pet cloning is to become popular, shelter animals will face an even larger threat of death based on the assumption that no one will adopt pets, if pet cloning becomes commercially available. Is all of this worth it for a cloned pet that may not even live up to an owner’s expectations? The pet cloning mania should be stopped in its tracks now, before we see a mass production of the horrid process we see as of today.

Works Cited

Alba, Alejandro. "People Can Clone Their Dogs in South Korea for $100,000." New York Daily News. N.p., 15 Dec. 2014. Web. <http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/people-clone-dogs-south-korea-100-000-article-1.2046263>.

Brodwin, Erin. "This Man Wrapped His Dead Dogs in Wet Towels, Took Them to Korea and Cloned Them." Yahoo! Finance. N.p., 8 Dec. 2014. Web. <http://finance.yahoo.com/news/lab-where-pay-dog-cloned-214556760.html>.

Fuller, Gillian. "You Can Get Your Dog Cloned in South Korea for Just $100,000." Elite Daily. N.p., 10 Dec. 2014. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://elitedaily.com/news/world/get-dog-cloned-south-korean-lab/877518/>.

Harding, Eleanor. "Cloned Dog Winnie the Dachshund Meets Her Genetic Twin." Daily Mail. N.p., 11 Aug. 2014. Web. <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2722382/UK-s-cloned-dog-Winnie-dachshund-meets-genetic-twin.html>.

Humane Society. "Factsheet on Animal Cloning." The Humane Society Of The United States. N.p., 28 Sept. 2009. Web. <http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/cloning/qa/questions_answers.html>.

Kolata, Gina. "RESEARCHERS FIND BIG RISK OF DEFECT IN CLONING ANIMALS." The New York Times. N.p., 25 Mar. 2001. Web. <http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/25/world/researchers-find-big-risk-of-defect-in-cloning-animals.html>.

Moustaki, Nikki. "The Cost of Cloning." DogChannel. N.p., 3 June 2014. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.dogchannel.com/dog-rescue/cost-of-dog-cloning.aspx>.

Nature. "A Dog's Life." Nature. N.p., 4 Aug. 2005. Web. 26 Jan. 2015. <http://www.nature.com.prox.lib.ncsu.edu/nature/journal/v436/n7051/full/436604a.html>.

Brain Mapping

The brain is one of the most intricate components of the human body. This vital organ has been studied, analyzed, and researched for centuries. Neuroscientists have come a long way in their findings regarding the brain`s structure, function, and capabilities. However, it is no surprise that the brain has so much more to offer neuroscientists than the information they have obtained to date. Through the use of brain mapping, neuroscientists will be able to obtain information about the brain never before thought possible. Brain mapping is a modern neurological technique involving the use of advanced imaging technologies. Mapping of the brain can lead to further findings of biological properties associated with specific disorders, illnesses, and additional elements that equip man with individuality. Knowledge of these findings could be key in identifying new treatment opportunities. The physicality of the brain can easily be examined and evaluated, but researchers can only acquire so much information through examining the brain`s structure. Remarkably, brain mapping allows researchers to view changes and activity within the brain when triggered in a given situation or presented with certain stimuli. The benefits of brain mapping are sufficient enough to revolutionize neuroscience, amplify neurological findings, and assist in the progress of new treatments. There has been controversy that the amount of funding and research necessary for brain mapping projects is impractical; in fear that the findings of these projects will be as minor as those discovered during the Human Genome Project. However, brain imaging techniques have advanced since the completion of the Human Genome Project. Researchers are confident that brain mapping will aid in new discoveries and revelations regarding the human brain. While advancing brain mapping will be expensive, researchers are confident that findings will lead to new treatments for diseases such as Parkinson`s or Alzheimer`s. 

Photo by Shima Ovaysikia

Brain mapping is a neurological technique capable of examining the anatomy and function of the brain. Through the use of imaging, “electrical activity” of neurons can be detected in order to determine which parts of the brain are being utilized in given situations and responding to particular stimuli (“The Benefits of Brain Mapping” 253). Such a technique could be greatly beneficial in research regarding an organ so complex as the brain, the most complex sector of the human body. The intricate nature of the brain has deemed unfavorable for researchers. It will take a technique as revolutionary as imaging through brain mapping to further investigate the brain, its capabilities, functions, structures, and effects on the human body itself. If neuroscientists were interested in the basic, elemental aspects of the brain, they would have no need for a technique as sophisticated as brain mapping. However, neuroscientists have a larger plan in mind: to investigate human consciousness. Their intention is to discover what it is about the brain that provides us with our individuality, precisely how it makes us who we are (Friston 241-250). Furthermore, researchers hope to identify a neurological explanation as to why, how, and what contributes to psychiatric disorders in individuals. 

If neuroscientists are as successful as planned in their discoveries through their use of brain mapping, a whole new objective will commence. The more discoveries made regarding psychiatric disorders, psychological disorders, diseases, illnesses, etc., the more likely researchers will progress in producing effective treatments for these issues. The reason fully effective treatments have yet to be discovered is because we are unaware of everything there is to know about the issues at hand. As stated previously, brain mapping can detect which parts of the brain are being utilized in given situations and responding to particular stimuli. These detections could be what researchers have been lacking in the quest for a cure to disorders and illnesses involving the mind. Recent progress in brain mapping technology will lead to some of the most advanced understanding of brain function to date (Humphries). Analyzing and comprehending the source of these cognitive dilemmas could lead researchers to understand their causes. Not only could brain mapping result in the progress of effective treatments, but it could also lead researchers to discover ways to avoid particular disorders and illnesses before they even occur.

Brain mapping may sound like a singular form of technology, however, many different technologies are associated with the brain mapping technique. Some of the most common brain mapping technologies include, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET) scan, and computed tomography (CT) scans. Each imaging tool provides its own fundamental purpose. Just the use of one of these technologies provides researchers with an immense amount of information. Imagine what could be discovered when multiple combinations of these technologies are being utilized in brain mapping research. MRIs are favored because they do not required exposure to radiation. The MRI provides detailed, three-dimensional images of brain structure at multiple angles. The fMRI functions similarly to the MRI, the only difference being the the fMRI provides a visual portrayal of brain activity. Electroencephalography measures electrical activity within the brain. The EEG is typically used to detect change occurring within the brain, comparing neural responses of the patient to the standard neural responses of healthy individuals (Baillet 14-30). PET scans also provide a visual portrayal of brain activity. However, PET scans require the patient to be injected with a form of glucose, and that glucose is used to detect the brain activity. Lastly, CT scans are an enhanced X-ray technique used to examine brain structure and can reveal brain damage. Clearly, each of these technologies could contribute greatly in brain imaging research. Each neurological assessment tool has advantages that could bring researchers closer to detecting and producing treatments for cognitive and fine motor deficits.

Photo by Open Knowledge

Brain mapping is not an entirely new approach in the world of neuroscience. The infamous Human Genome Project utilized brain mapping within its research, as well as President Barack Obama`s recent BRAIN Initiative (Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies). The primary goal of both research projects was to map genes, neurons, etc., within the brain in order to attain further research and understanding in the brain`s role in behavior and disease/disorder development. As previously mentioned, there has been controversy that the amount of funding and research necessary for brain mapping projects is impractical; in fear that the findings of these projects will be as minor as the those discovered during the Human Genome Project. The findings of the Human Genome Project are only “minor” in comparison to the findings researchers hoped to discover during the onset of the project. The Human Genome Project completed a “high-quality sequence” of almost the entire human genome, provided further information about brain structure, and location of specific genes (“Mapping the Brain-mapping Project” 786). Although these findings were not as substantial as researchers initially hoped for, they were still valuable pieces of information in the neuroscience field. Luckily, since the completion of the Human Genome Project, brain mapping technologies have only progressed. If researchers were able to make such paramount discoveries with the technology utilized during the Human Genome Project, imagine what vital information could be found through the advanced, modern brain mapping technologies used today. President Obama`s BRAIN Initiative is one of the most recent brain mapping research projects. Researchers of the recent project intend on using brain mapping to examine the interaction between “individual cells and complex neural circuits” (“Mapping the Brain-mapping Project” 786). Not only do researchers hope to determine the aspects and interconnections of the brain that are the source of disorders, but also find ways to prevent the disorders themselves. The utilization of brain mapping through neurological research projects such as these will bring researchers closer to discovering the cause of disorders relating to the brain; and further prompt the discovery of treatments and preventions of these disorders. 

Photo by Health and Human Services Department

The use of brain mapping in neurological research projects can also lead researchers to identify various treatment options for individuals with disorders such as Parkinson`s or Alzheimer`s. Approximately one million Americans are currently suffering from Parkinson`s disease, and five million from Alzheimer`s (“The Benefits of Brain Mapping” 253). At this moment, there is no cure for either disease. However, with the help of brain mapping, researchers hope the analyzing of individuals with Parkinson`s or Alzheimer`s will bring them a step closer to forms of prevention and/or treatment. The more information that can be obtained about these diseases, the more likely researchers will be able to generate a cure. If multiple patients with either disease were to be examined, the precise mapping of their brains could be analyzed and compared. Differences in the brains of these patients, compared to that of a “healthy” brain, could be a key in identifying a neurological source of the disease. If researchers were to make such revolutionary discoveries as these, brain mapping would be more than just a neurological research project tool; but a technical aid in ending suffering and even saving lives. 

Critics of brain mapping are basing their assumptions and opinions of the technique on the results of a research project from over a decade ago. Contrary to what these critics have claimed, the discoveries made during the Human Genome Project were not invaluable. That being said, brain mapping technologies since then have only advanced. Imaging techniques can provide some of the most detailed, accurate information of the brain, its structure, and the way in which it functions. Neurological, psychological, behavioral, and cognitive diseases and disorders are some of the most difficult to treat. Brain mapping will provide researchers with the opportunity to “dig deeper” into the neurological reasoning behind these brain-affiliated ailments, such as Parkinson`s and Alzheimer`s. Further research and understanding of these diseases and disorders could very well lead to the discovery of prevention and treatment as well. The amount of potential benefits to be gained through brain mapping research projects are too worthwhile not to pursue. Brain mapping can revolutionize the neuroscience field, as well as the medical field in the process.

Works Cited

Baillet, Sylvain. "Electromagnetic Brain Mapping." IEEE Signal Processing Magazine Nov. 2001: 14-30. Print.

Friston, Karl J. "Modules and Brain Mapping." Cognitive Neuropsychology 1 June 2011: 241-250. Print.

Humphries, Courtney. "Brain Mapping." Technology review May 2014: 62-5. ProQuest. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.

"Mapping the Brain-mapping Project." 26.11 (2013): 786. Print.

"The Benefits of Brain Mapping." Nature 499.7458 (2013): 253. Print.

Time For the Social Sciences

Social sciences and humanities have taken a back seat to natural sciences for many years now due to the constant advancements made in medical and technological fields of study, which often overshadow those made in fields of social science. Not only that but also because of the pretense that social sciences do not deal with empirical evidence and therefore are not technically “science.” This could not be further from the truth and completely undermines the importance of the social sciences as a whole. In fact, social sciences rely just as heavily on empirical evidence as natural sciences do. It is necessary for the public to understand the value of the social sciences because continued ignorance on the subject will lead to stagnation even in fields reliant on natural sciences. As a Nature editorial put it, “If you want science to deliver for society, through commerce, government or philanthropy, you need to support a capacity to understand that society that is as deep as your capacity to understand the science.” (Nature. “Time For the Social Sciences”) A better understanding and willingness to learn about the social sciences is necessary for continued progression, even in fields reliant on natural sciences.

Social science is simply the scientific study of human society and social relationships, in fields such as economics, politics, psychology, etc. People are quick to assume a lack of empirical research due to the “social” and “relationship” aspect of the science. Critic Martin E. Spencer claims in his book The Imperfect Empiricism of the Social Sciences that “practitioners of social science believe that they accumulate knowledge through a classical scientific dialectic of hypothesis and evidence (“scientific empiricism”), they in fact assume their hypotheses to be true images of the nature of the social world, and they resist evidence that gainsays these images (“imperfect empiricism”).”(331) However, scientists, especially those of the social nature, understand the paramount need to never claim a hypothesis to be true unless it is 100 percent backed by evidence, especially if it is an ongoing field of research with new information still being added to the topic. To assume one’s hypothesis as true, without strong evidence, and to resist evidence otherwise is known as pseudoscience, exactly what the social sciences strive not to do. He confuses ambiguity with a lack of research and acceptance of falsities as fact. Pulitzer winning historian David Kennedy believed dealing with ambiguity to be the essence of the natural sciences. He claimed that Interpretation, reconciliation, appreciating the points of origins of different positions is a social scientists “stock and trade.”(Haven, “Why Do I Need to Know That”) Not only is Mr. Spencer leagues from the truth, but his mindset is a driving force in the lack of funding and appreciation for the social sciences as a whole.

Why are the social sciences so important? What puts their relevance on par with natural sciences such as biology, physics, or chemistry? To answer this question one must simply look at the first word in social science; “social.” The definition of social is “of or relating to society or its organization.” Therefore social science is at its core the science of how society works, why society changes, and why society moves in the direction that it does. As Philipp Egger, Director /CEO of Gebert Rüf Stiftung stated, the social sciences help identify the need for reform in a country’s developmental sectors, particularly socio-economic, and address possible challenges and solutions concerning political stability, inter-ethnic relations, protection of minorities, and nation building(Egger, “How Social Sciences can Contribute to Changing a Society,”). To provide a visual, imagine the social sciences as a blueprint to a new building; the layout of the building, where it’s going to be built, and even why it’s going to be built. The natural sciences are the actual framework and physical aspect of the building. Although you cannot see the blueprint of the building, you should understand the importance of it and the integral role it plays in the creation of the building.

Photo by: Joe Shlabotnik

Not only are social sciences and natural sciences equally important but they often go hand in hand when it comes to certain fields of work or branches of study. These disciplines would not exist, or be severely lacking in information, if one of the types of sciences were to be excluded, just as a building would be nearly impossible to build without blueprints and blueprints would be relatively useless without tools to create a building. For instance, psychiatry uses both psychology and human biology in order to better understand the mental illnesses suffered by people and the correlation said illnesses have to different medications and treatments. Depression, as an example, is a mental illness that requires the diagnosis of someone who is versed in the psychological aspect of the brain. Medication is required for treatment of severe cases of this illness but can only be prescribed by a certified doctor who is versed in the effects of prescription medications and how they could potentially benefit the user suffering from depression. Someone lacking the psychological aspect would not be able to diagnose and someone lacking the medical aspect would not be able to treat more severe cases. Anthropology, the scientific study of humans past and present, as another example, uses a mix of social and life sciences to provide the most extensive overview into human life possible. Anthropologists use fossils as records to show where people lived and migrated to during which periods of time. They also use ethnography, participant observation, and focus groups to find and address possible problems in different cultures and how continued unchanged progression will affect said cultures. Donald Johanson, the paleoanthropologist known for discovering one of the earliest hominids, captured the relationship between the social and natural sciences in the field of anthropology perfectly when he reminisces on what originally drew him to his field of work, stating “When the first fossils began to be found in eastern Africa, in the late 1950s, I thought, what a wonderful marriage this was, biology and anthropology.I was around 16 years old when I made this particular choice of academic pursuit.” (Johanson)

Photo by: Sean O Domhnaill

Now imagine a world without social sciences. Not only would we be clueless as to why humans interact with each other the way they do, but we would also likely be living in extremely regressed social conditions. The social sciences are fields of study that are not necessarily beneficial in the immediate short term, as cures for diseases or new technologies may be, but over time they positively impact society just as a cure or new piece of technology may. Scientific racism, the use of scientific techniques and hypotheses to support or justify the belief in racism, racial inferiority, or racial superiority, was finally discredited after World War II with the help of the social sciences. UNESCO, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, released a statement titled “The Race Question” at the end of the war. The authors of the statement were the leading researchers of the time in psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology, and ethnology and the statement affirmed that all citizens must be equal in the eyes of the law, no matter any physical or intellectual differences. (Wiki. “The Race Question”) This statement was what many considered the start of a new social reform and although the reform has been slow and is arguably still in progress, without the social sciences we could very well still be living in times of overt racism and bigotry. As social sciences progress, so does the knowledge we have about people and the interactions between them. Social sciences helped lead to the understanding that people are human regardless of their skin color or cultural/ethnic background and through social sciences, legislation can be created for the betterment and equality of those previously discriminated against for illogical reasons. The knowledge provided by the social sciences continues to provide education to people as a whole which leads to less people being able to use ignorance as an excuse to discriminate against others and this leads to communal betterment worldwide.

To attempt a complete understanding of the world around us, one must first shed the misconceptions that come with the social sciences and begin to care. Not only must we care about areas concerning our nation, but all nations, especially if we wish to endorse our “land of the free” and “melting pot” criterions.  Karl Eikenberry vocalized this perfectly when he stated “If we don’t understand ourselves, we can’t do it well,...You can’t preserve something you don’t understand. You can’t defend what you don’t know.  If you aspire to be a transnational bridge, you have to be grounded on both sides of the river.” (Haven, “Why Do I Need to Know That”) The social and natural world are in constant interaction with one another and to view one as less scientific or less important only leads to a lack of understanding of the world as a whole.

Works Cited

• "Time for the Social Sciences." Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 30 Dec. 2014. Web. 16 Feb. 2015.

• Egger, Philipp. How Social Sciences Can Contribute to Changing a Society. BaselArea: Gebert Ruf Stiftung, Aug. 2012. PDF.

• Haven, Cynthia. ""Why Do I Need to Know That?" Defending the Humanities, Social Sciences in a Techno World." The Book Haven RSS. Stanford University, 7 Sept. 2012. Web. 16 Feb. 2015.

• Spencer, Martin E. The Imperfect Empiricism of the Social Sciences. Oneonta: Kluwer Academic, 1987. 331. Print.

• "Donald Johanson." BrainyQuote.com. Xplore Inc, 2015. 16 February 2015. http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/d/donaldjoha355690.html

•  "The Race Question." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Mar. 2011. Web. 16 Feb. 2015.

City Life: Every Modernist's Dream

For my first individual entry of the semester, I will be focusing on the effects of city life on an individual's ability to cope with the rushed, constantly busy, and ongoing sense of everyday living. As the world's population keeps moving into cities,the commodities readily available to residents are making the fast-paced style of life almost viable to raise happy, healthy families. However, with many arguing that over-crowdedness and the never ending hustle-and-bustle is causing many to grow more and more stressed, plagued with anxiety and depression, one may come to wonder how much of a role money and work conditions play in this city-wide disease. What about social issues? Minorities versus majorities? Quality of life? Shopping and dining options? This article will delve into all this and much more to find the ideal city-life the Indiana Jones of the concrete jungle dreams of.

Abbott, Alison. "Stress and the City: Urban Decay." NATURE (2012): N. pag. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.nature.com/news/stress-and-the-city-urban-decay-1.11556>.

Scientists investigate evidence that suggests cities and modern life give way to psychosis. This article pulls from multiple sources of research that prove just how stressful and anxiety inducing cities can be. By displaying an experiment that was done on city-dwellers and non-city-dwellers and the anxiety they would have in a given situation, the article shows how even a short-lived stay in the city could have a prolonged effect on one's life.

Beck, Melinda. "City Vs. Country: Who Is Healthier?" The Wall Street Journal. N.p., 12 July 2011. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304793504576434442652581806>.

This article pits urban life and rural life against each other, quickly comparing the different amenities available to each. It builds its evidence by pointing out all the plentiful resources available in cities while also observing how rural life is more quiet and slower-paced. This article fits in to my research as its provides differing views of the "best" way to live according to modern Americans.

Crowhurst Lennard, Suzanne H. "Planning for Healthy Living: the Next Challenge." Liveable Cities. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.livablecities.org/articles/planning-healthy-living-next-challenge>.

Following very close in hand with my original nature article, this article in particular observes all the aspects and populations of a city that make it a bustling metropolis. By looking at how different age groups live, interact, and thrive within a city environment, this article calls to attention many aspects of a city, such as bullying and healthcare, that could be deemed negative and positive. With this article I will be able to argue both sides of the "healthiest place" to live argument as I use it in a more personalised context.

Kennedy, Daniel P., and Ralph Adolphs. "Stress and the City." Nature (2011): N. pag. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.

This study follows with how cities can cause stress, anxiety, and even mental and health diseases within individuals living a fast-paced life. Sourcing scholarly and scientific journals to prove their point, they look into brain scans and show just how negatively city life can adverse one's bodily conditions. They do make sure to point out that though city life does have its negative downfalls, the city should not be crossed off anyone's list as a potential place of residence. This article fits in perfectly due to its health and mental research and the balance one needs for a healthy city life.

Financial Samurai. "How Do People Live a Comfortable Life Making Less than Six Figures in Expensive Cities?"Financial Samurai. N.p., 17 Mar. 2014. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.financialsamurai.com/>.

This article dives in head straight as it crunches numbers and figures how people with "below-par" salaries are able to afford the luxurious city life. The evidence is clear and concise - totally understandable - as financial figures and costs of living are laid flat to represent the amount needed to actually live comfortably. This article comes to prove that some may sacrifice many aspects of life to live in cities, but do not budge when it comes to changing their quality of living. This article fits in to my research as I need to showcase how financial struggles can most definitely pose a struggle for families falling below the national average,

Do Not Panic: GMOs Are Good!

In a few weeks, I will be posting a full response to the anti-GMO movement that has recently spurred from public paranoia. Below, I have posted a few of my main sources that outline why GMOs should not be feared. If you have been paying attention to the news lately, the public and legislature have been hammering away at Genetically Modified Organism, but more generally they are attacking GM plants. People are claiming that because these plant variations are not found naturally, they are harmful for human and animal consumption. However, there is a major problem with their argument... their logic is not supported by any hard scientific facts! Really, thousands of test have all found that GMOs are just as good as organic foods. Aside from that, they help the environment, can lead to economic growth, and greater agricultural sustainability which is becoming hard to sustain as our world population continues to rise and unprecedented rates!



"An Absurd Law." Nature. N.p., 24 Feb. 2010. Web. 29 Jan. 2015.

The article claims that a new law that outlawed the sell and cultivation of genetically modified organisms would destroy Turkey’s emerging biomedical research field. The claim is supported by the fact that the law puts a strain on the research field by requiring that scientists apply to Turkey's agriculture board to conduct even trivial experiments; these applications can sit up to 90 days before they must be decided upon. This constraint on research would clog labs and render any kind of biomedical research nearly impossible. This article is relevant because the bill is an example of why it is important for the public to understand that GMOs are not harmful.



"GMOs: Yes or No?" Running and Fitnews May-June 2011: 2-4. ProQuest Central. Web. 01 Feb. 2015.


 The articles main claim is that there is no hard evidence that GMOs are bad for consumption. The article also criticizes the fact that the public only thinks with its “gut feeling” and therefore is turned off to GMOs. The author uses many examples of how GMOs would benefit everyone; these examples range from the decrease of applied pesticides, to the reduction of greenhouse gases, to the reduction of heart attacks in the USA due to an increased salmon consumption, to the possibility of lab grown meats. This article embodies the positive effects of utilizing GMOs.



Kagolo, Francis. "Africa: GMOs Good for Africa's Development, Says Harvard Don." AllAfrica.com. All Africa, 22 Apr. 2013. Web. 02 Feb. 2015. <http://allafrica.com/stories/201304221642.html>.



Francis Kagolo’s article focuses on Professor Calestous Juma, a Harvard University scholar, who visited Africa to urge President Yoweri Museveni to accept GMOs into the African market. Professor Juma said that GMOs would bring greater income security, economic growth, and stability to Africa. GMOs would stimulate Africa’s agricultural sector, which remains its largest economic sector. To explain himself, Professsor Juma used the example of the banana bacterial wilt that has destroyed the Banana industry in Uganda. He stated that if the farmers plant genetically modified banana trees, the bacteria responsible would not affect those bananas. This source is relevant as it shows how GMOs can promote economic growth in developing nations.



O'Brian, Mark R. "Don’t Fear GMOs: Genetically Modified Food Is Just the Latest Chapter in 10,000 Years of High-tech Agriculture." www.buffalonews.com. The Buffalo News, 06 Apr. 2014. Web. 01 Feb. 2015.



Mark O’Brian states that GMOs are safe because we have always consumed GMOs. Following this logic, O’Brian constructs the argument that by selective consumption and harvesting, we have only eaten the breeds of plants that promoted our own survival. Also, he claims that cross pollination to produce desired traits has acted as an early method of genetic modification. Continuing, he draws the article to a close stating that we have always consumed GMOs so there is no reason to stop that practice now or to assume that GMOs are harmful. His article re-iterates the fact that GMOs are safe for human and animal consumption.



Ronald, Pamela. "The Truth About GMOs." www.bostonreview.net. Boston Review, 06 Sept. 2013. Web. 01 Feb. 2015.



Pamela Ronald is an ardent supporter of incorporating GMOs into our lives. She points out that GMOs reduce the amounts of applied pesticides. One such example is seen when observing genetically modified Bt cotton. This GMO does not require pesticides to fight off the boll weevil, a pest that destroys cotton plants. Another example is that GM Papaya plants in China and Hawaii saved the entire papaya industry from collapse. The GM Papaya plants were made to be resistant to a disease that essentially rotted the fruit. She also addresses the fact that the resistance to GMOs is political rather than scientific. Legislatures put bans and constraints on GMOs to appease their voter population; they do not ban GMOs for actual scientific reasons. This article supports my point that GMOs are seen as bad only because of opinions instead of scientific facts.